Anxiety as being nervous, uneasy, apprehensive, or worried boredom as being weary or restless through lack of interest confusion/uncertainty as a noticeable lack of understanding and being unsure how to proceed curiosity as a desire to acquire more knowledge or to learn the material more deeply delight as a high degree of satisfaction engagement/flow as a state of interest that results from involvement in an activity frustration as dissatisfaction or annoyance from being stuck surprise as a state of wonder or amazement and neutral as having no apparent emotion or feeling. (2014) distinguished nine epistemic emotions likely to occur when learning from a digital environment, for which they gave the following definitions (p. The emotions that occur during learning are sometimes called epistemic emotions because they are directly caused by the cognitive processing of information presented as part of a learning task ( Pekrun and Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2014). In addition to the cognitive engagement of such tasks, learners are also likely to experience emotions when attempting to understand complex content portrayed in instructional environments ( Um et al., 2012). These learning tasks involve specific cognitive processes in order to select, to organize, and to integrate different pieces of information into a mental model ( Mayer, 2009). Learning a technique, understanding a situation, solving a problem, and more generally, developing knowledge about a topic, are examples of complex cognitive activities. Applications of this methodology to real-world settings are discussed. These results provide insights into the ambivalent impact of confusion in problem-solving task, illustrating the dual effect (i.e., positive or negative) of this emotion on activity and performance, as reported in the literature. Moreover, the main emotions reported before the video (e.g., confusion, frustration, curiosity) tended to differ from the emotions reported after the videos (e.g., engagement, delight, boredom). Before watching the instructional video, the number of clicks on the puzzle was positively correlated with the level of confusion whereas the correlation was negatively after the video. In addition, while comparing the pre- and post-video sequences, the experience of confusion tended to differ. The results revealed that the level of self-reported confusion was negatively correlated with the performance on solving the puzzles. In parallel to collecting self-reported confusion ratings, human-computer interaction was captured to serve as non-intrusive measures of emotions. The experimental task consisted of the resolution of logic puzzles presented on a computer, before, and after watching an instructional video depicting a method to solve the puzzle. The study reported in this article explored new methodologies to assess emotions in a problem-solving task. However, in digital learning environments, observing students’ confusion, as well as other epistemic emotions, can be problematic because of the remoteness of students. For this reason, considering confusion can be an important factor for educators to evaluate students’ progression in cognitive activities. Confusion is one of these emotions and it can produce either negative or positive outcomes, according to the situation. When students perform complex cognitive activities, such as solving a problem, epistemic emotions can occur and influence the completion of the task. 5School of Psychology, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.4Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States.3Curtin Institute for Computation, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.2Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. ![]() ![]() 1Department of Educational Studies, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.Amaël Arguel 1,2* Lori Lockyer 2 Kevin Chai 3 Mariya Pachman 4 Ottmar V.
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